可薩猶太人陰謀論

可薩猶太人陰謀論是一套關於阿什肯納茲猶太人歷史起源的反猶太主義及反錫安主義陰謀論。該理論聲稱，大量可薩人曾皈依猶太教；可薩汗國滅亡後，可薩裔猶太人逃往東歐，成為東歐猶太人口的絕大多數^[1]；現今的阿什肯納茲猶太人多為可薩人的後裔。信奉該理論的人士通常相信，「可薩猶太人」、共濟會及錫安主義者之間存在「秘密聯盟」，意圖「統治世界」。

絕大多數歷史學、系譜學及宗教學學者認為該理論缺乏事實基礎及證據支持。遺傳學研究結果亦與該假說相抵觸。^[2]

可薩汗國

普遍認為，歷史上可薩人主要由來自東方的鐵勒部落以及一些講波斯語的部落、北高加索人及斯拉夫人組成。

7至9世紀期間，拜占庭帝國試圖強迫猶太人改宗基督教，許多猶太人故此從中東逃往北高加索。可薩汗國便位於此處。該國君主為可汗，通常居住在宮殿。該國尊重宗教信仰並給予所有宗教同等地位，同時允許國內不同宗教群體（包括猶太人、基督徒、穆斯林、騰格里信徒等）擁有自己的法官及獨立法庭。

8世紀，以可汗為首的可薩貴族精英接受了猶太教。該國大多數民眾對於猶太教仍是知之甚少。

10世紀，可薩汗國的勢力因基輔羅斯人的攻擊而削弱。最終，基輔羅斯奪取了可薩汗國的所有土地，可薩汗國滅亡。

理論產生

蘇聯曾盛行各種反猶太主義陰謀論，例如「猶太人控制世界」陰謀論及「猶太醫生害死高官」陰謀論。

俄羅斯根深蒂固的反猶太主義在1960年演變為反錫安主義，指控「全球錫安主義者」試圖接管世界。同時，蘇聯宣傳人員認為「這種邪惡」是由美國及以色列引導的，只有蘇聯才能領導抵抗錫安主義並帶領世界走向美好未來。施納勒曼認為，反猶太主義在俄羅斯民族主義的形成中發揮了基礎性作用。^[3]

20世紀70年代，「猶太人源於可薩人皈依」的理論開始在俄羅斯及東歐流行。後來俄羅斯東正教民族主義者及公共媒體開始擔心該理論的傳播，並試圖否認可薩汗國的存在，因為他們憂慮該理論可能令俄羅斯猶太人有理由聲索俄羅斯南部地區的主權。

世界傳播

該理論在全球得到傳播，在各國極端政治勢力以及原教旨主義群體中尤為盛行，為新納粹主義的興起奠定了基礎。

蘇聯反猶宣傳家瓦列里·葉姆利亞諾夫將該理論與「世界錫安主義」陰謀論及「猶太共濟會控制世界」陰謀論相結合，並以阿拉伯語傳播，在阿拉伯國家及伊斯蘭國家大受歡迎，對這些國家內反猶太主義及反錫安主義的發展產生了深遠影響。葉姆利亞諾夫聲稱，弗拉基米爾一世是猶太人後裔，因此他故意抹去了俄羅斯雅利安人的歷史、觀念及文化，並引入基督教的歷史、觀念及文化以取代；錫安主義是「世界上一切邪惡的根源」，「只有透過雅利安人摧毀基督教才能夠挫敗錫安主義陰謀」。

中東地區文獻開始將所謂「可薩猶太人」描繪成「伊斯蘭教及阿拉伯人的敵人」（因可薩人為爭奪高加索曾多次與阿拉伯人作戰）。

至今仍有眾多反錫安主義者使用該理論試圖否定古以色列人與今猶太人之間的繼承關係，儘管該理論並沒有提到塞法迪猶太人及米茲拉希猶太人（共佔以色列猶太人口約50%）^[4]。美國種族主義者（包括學者洛斯羅普·斯托達德及三K黨分子）、俄羅斯民族主義者等群體中亦仍有不少人利用該理論傳播反猶太主義。^[5]^[6]在阿拉伯世界，該理論一直遊走在反錫安主義、反猶太主義及其相交地帶。^[7]

近年來，社交媒體的普及進一步推動了該理論及其他反猶太陰謀論的傳播。^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]

學術觀點

學術上，「大多數猶太人源於可薩人皈依」的假說早已被否定，自20世紀50年代末期便不再被提起。

學者凱文·艾倫·布洛克認為該假說無法成立，並表示完全無法贊同該理論，其研究卻經常被支持該理論的人士斷章取義地引用。

在20世紀下半葉，以色列學者阿巴·埃文^[12]、彼得·戈爾登^[13]、勞埃德·加特納^[14]、諾曼·戈盧布及奧姆利安·普里茨克^[15]認為，歷史上確實可能有少數可薩人與猶太人通婚，並成為阿什肯納茲猶太人的祖源的一小部分。

1987年，歷史學者伯納德·劉易斯指出，「歐洲猶太人不是古以色列人後裔，而是可薩人後裔」的假說沒有任何證據支持，早已被所有嚴謹的學者放棄，包括阿拉伯學者^[16]^[17]；該理論只是偶爾出現在阿拉伯人反錫安主義的政治論戰中。^[17]^[18]

2000年，科普作家尼古拉斯·韋德引用一篇關於阿什肯納茲猶太人Y染色體譜系的遺傳學論文^[19]，駁斥「阿什肯納茲猶太人大多數是皈依者或可薩人後裔」的理論。^[20]

2013年，多倫·貝哈爾等遺傳學家研究認為，猶太人與可薩人之間基本上不可能有強聯繫；由於可薩人的現代後裔不明，「猶太可薩人」假說難以用遺傳學方法檢驗；在阿什肯納茲猶太人中沒有發現任何遺傳標記可將他們與高加索或可薩民族聯繫起來；相反，阿什肯納茲猶太人在基因上最接近其他猶太群體以及非猶太中東及歐洲人群。^[2]

2022年，凱文·艾倫·布洛克出示證據表明，阿什肯納茲猶太人約有50%的基因與中東地區有關。^[21]

基因研究的共識是，全球猶太人（包括阿什肯納茲猶太人）擁有源自古代中東共同祖先的大量遺傳基因，阿什肯納茲猶太人沒有可追溯至可薩人的遺傳基因。^[2]

參見

參考

^ Venton 2013，第75頁.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Behar & et al. 2013.
^ Shnirelman. 2002. Pp. 1-3
^ Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age (PDF). [11 March 2019]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2023-10-29）.
^ Barkun 2012:'Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s,'.
^ Goodrick-Clarke 2003.
^ Harkabi 1987: "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text 'Arab Antisemitism' in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism (Hebrew), 1968, p.50.
^ One of the Jersey City Shooting Suspects Believed anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theory, ADL Says. Haaretz. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2022-12-07）（英语）.
^ Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories Abound Around Russian Assault on Ukraine | ADL. www.adl.org. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2022-11-29）（英语）.
^ Khazars | #TranslateHate | AJC. www.ajc.org. 2021-03-30 [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-31）（英语）.
^ Khazars | Center on Extremism. extremismterms.adl.org. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-29）（英语）.
^ Abba Eban. My People: The Story of the Jews. Behrman House. 1968: 150 （英语）. It is likely too that some Khazar progeny reached the various Slavic lands where they helped to build the great Jewish centers of Eastern Europe.
^ Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Otto Harrassowitz. 1992: 243–244. ISBN 9783447032742 （英语）. It is very likely that Judaized Khazar elements, especially those that had acculturated to the cities, contributed to the subsequently Slavic-speaking Jewish communities of Kievan Rus'. These were ultimately absorbed by Yiddish-speaking Jews entering the Ukraine and Belorussia from Poland and Central Europe.
^ Lloyd P. Gartner. History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford University Press. 2000: 19 （英语）.
^ Norman Golb; Omeljan Pritsak. Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Cornell University Press. 1982: xv. ISBN 9780801412219 （英语）.
^ Sand 2010
^ ^17.0 ^17.1 Lewis 1987:'Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics.' Assertions of this kind has been challenged by Paul WexlerWexler 2007 who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."(p.537).
^ Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Company. 1999. ISBN 9780393318395.
^ Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, Bonne-Tamir B. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. June 2000, 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733 . PMID 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997 .
^ Wade, Nicholas. Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. The New York Times. 9 May 2000 [8 June 2021]. （原始内容存档于2020-04-01）.
^ Kevin Brook. The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews. Academic Studies Press. 2022: 3. ISBN 978-1-64469-984-3. doi:10.2307/j.ctv33mgbcn （英语）.

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Shnirelman, Victor A. The Story of a Euphemism:The Khazars in Russian Nationalist Literature. Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (编). The World of the Khazars:New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies 17. BRILL. 2007: 353–372. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.
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延伸閱讀

Victor Shnirelman. 2002. The Myth of the Khazars and Intellectual Antisemitism in Russia, 1970s-1990s. The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

外部連結

Rory Miller(2020) The anti-Zionist 'Jewish Khazar' syndrome in the official British mind （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
Fishberg, Maurice (1911): The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment.
The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.
Khazaria.com （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
Resources - Medieval Jewish History - The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Khazar Historic Maps
The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

[FOOTNOTEVenton201375-1] Venton 2013，第75頁.

[FOOTNOTEBeharet_al.2013-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Behar & et al. 2013.

[3] Shnirelman. 2002. Pp. 1-3

[CBS_2008_jews_origin-4] Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age (PDF). [11 March 2019]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2023-10-29）.

[5] Barkun 2012:'Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s,'.

[6] Goodrick-Clarke 2003.

[7] Harkabi 1987: "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text 'Arab Antisemitism' in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism (Hebrew), 1968, p.50.

[8] One of the Jersey City Shooting Suspects Believed anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theory, ADL Says. Haaretz. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2022-12-07）（英语）.

[9] Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories Abound Around Russian Assault on Ukraine | ADL. www.adl.org. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2022-11-29）（英语）.

[10] Khazars | #TranslateHate | AJC. www.ajc.org. 2021-03-30 [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-31）（英语）.

[11] Khazars | Center on Extremism. extremismterms.adl.org. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-29）（英语）.

[12] Abba Eban. My People: The Story of the Jews. Behrman House. 1968: 150 （英语）. It is likely too that some Khazar progeny reached the various Slavic lands where they helped to build the great Jewish centers of Eastern Europe.

[13] Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Otto Harrassowitz. 1992: 243–244. ISBN 9783447032742 （英语）. It is very likely that Judaized Khazar elements, especially those that had acculturated to the cities, contributed to the subsequently Slavic-speaking Jewish communities of Kievan Rus'. These were ultimately absorbed by Yiddish-speaking Jews entering the Ukraine and Belorussia from Poland and Central Europe.

[14] Lloyd P. Gartner. History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford University Press. 2000: 19 （英语）.

[15] Norman Golb; Omeljan Pritsak. Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Cornell University Press. 1982: xv. ISBN 9780801412219 （英语）.

[Sand240-16] Sand 2010

[:0-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Lewis 1987:'Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics.' Assertions of this kind has been challenged by Paul WexlerWexler 2007 who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."(p.537).

[Lewis-18] Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Company. 1999. ISBN 9780393318395.

[pnas-19] Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, Bonne-Tamir B. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. June 2000, 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733 . PMID 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997 .

[NYTbear-20] Wade, Nicholas. Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. The New York Times. 9 May 2000 [8 June 2021]. （原始内容存档于2020-04-01）.

[21] Kevin Brook. The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews. Academic Studies Press. 2022: 3. ISBN 978-1-64469-984-3. doi:10.2307/j.ctv33mgbcn （英语）.

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查论编反犹太主义
核心	反猶主義謠言（英语：Antisemitic canard）經濟反猶太主義（英语：Economic antisemitism）反猶太主義的地理（英语：Geography of antisemitism）反猶太主義的歷史（英语：History of antisemitism）宗教反猶太主義（英语：Religious antisemitism）迫害猶太人（英语：Persecution of Jews）納粹主義阿道夫·希特勒美洲的納粹主義（英语：Nazism in the Americas）纳粹德国政治宣传新反猶太主義反猶太主義的三D 反猶太主義的現行定義種族反猶太主義（英语：Racial antisemitism）無根世界主義者（英语：Rootless cosmopolitan）二級反猶太主義（英语：Secondary antisemitism）猶太人的刻板印象（英语：Stereotypes of Jews）反猶太主義時間表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism） 19世紀反猶太主義時間表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism in the 19th century） 20世紀反猶太主義時間表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism in the 20th century） 21世紀反猶太主義時間表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism in the 21st century）
反猶主義	基督教的反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Christianity）反猶太主義與新約（英语：Antisemitism and the New Testament）伊斯蘭教的反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Islam）中世紀的反猶太主義（英语：Medieval antisemitism）伊斯蘭民族與反猶太主義（英语：Nation of Islam and antisemitism）奧運會的反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in the Olympic Games）蘇聯數學的反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Soviet mathematics）大學與反猶太主義（英语：Universities and antisemitism）
相關話題	反錫安主義基督徒身份（英语：Christian Identity）文化馬克思主義陰謀論雙重種族滅絕論（英语：Double genocide theory）國際猶太人陰謀（英语：International Jewish conspiracy）《國際猶太人（英语：The International Jew）》猶太布爾什維主義日多科穆納（英语：Żydokomuna）可薩猶太人陰謀論 3K黨《我的奮鬥》阿拉伯語版（英语：Mein Kampf in Arabic）英語版（英语：Mein Kampf in English）黑死病期間對猶太人的迫害（英语：Persecution of Jews during the Black Death）《關於猶太人與他們的謊言（英语：On the Jews and Their Lies）》哲學猶太主義（英语：Philo-Semitism）《锡安长老会纪要》对当代的影响（英语：Contemporary imprints of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion）《黑人與猶太人之間的秘密關係（英语：The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews）》自我憎恨的猶太人（英语：Self-hating Jew）仇外心理白人種族滅絕陰謀論锡安主义反猶太主義（英语：Zionist antisemitism）
宗教反猶太主義（英语：Religious antisemitism）	反猶太教弑神指控（英语：Jewish deicide）宗教裁判所葡萄牙宗教裁判所（英语：Portuguese Inquisition）羅馬宗教裁判所（英语：Roman Inquisition）西班牙宗教裁判所萊茵蘭大屠殺馬丁路德與反猶太主義（英语：Martin Luther and antisemitism）鮮血詛咒（英语：Blood curse）血祭诽谤亵渎圣体（英语：Host desecration）犹太人的母猪反猶騷亂
反猶主義的法律、政策、政府行為	貧民窟長椅（英语：Ghetto benches） Hep-Hep騷亂（英语：Hep-Hep riots）反猶騷亂五月法則（英语：May Laws） 1968年波蘭政治危機（英语：1968 Polish political crisis）猶太反猶太復國主義聯盟（英语：Jewish Anti-Zionist League）里奧·弗蘭克（英语：Leo Frank）德雷福斯事件梅納赫姆·門德爾·貝利斯法胡德伊拉克反猶太復國主義聯盟（英语：Anti-Zionist League in Iraq）第11號總令（英语：General Order No. 11 (1862)）納粹德國的種族政策（英语：Racial policy of Nazi Germany）最終解決方案納粹大屠殺反世界主義運動犹太人反法西斯委员会案件斯蘭斯基審判（英语：Slánský trial）医生案件纳粹大屠杀否认论犹太星被锡安主义者控制的政府阴谋论
反猶網站	聖經信徒（英语：Bible Believers）每日風暴（英语：The Daily Stormer）歷史評論研究所（英语：Institute for Historical Review）猶太人觀察（英语：Jew Watch） Metapedia 克雷格·科布（英语：Craig Cobb）伊斯蘭電台（英语：Radio Islam）紅色觀察（英语：Redwatch）正確的東西（英语：The Right Stuff (blog)） Stormfront
迫害猶太人（英语：Persecution of Jews）	萊茵蘭大屠殺黑死病期間對猶太人的迫害（英语：Persecution of Jews during the Black Death）反猶抵制（英语：Anti-Jewish boycotts）猶太人的驅逐與流亡（英语：Expulsions and exoduses of Jews）猶太區歐洲的猶太人聚居區（英语：Jewish ghettos in Europe）邁拉赫（英语：Mellah）納粹大屠殺猶太帽（英语：Jewish hat）猶太人配額（英语：Jewish quota）犹太人的母猪猶太教中的殉難（英语：Martyrdom in Judaism）纽伦堡法案栅栏区反犹骚乱雷富尼克（英语：Refusenik）宗教隔離西班牙宗教裁判所從西班牙驅逐猶太人（英语：Expulsion of Jews from Spain）犹太星
反反猶組織	反誹謗聯盟灣區大屠殺口述歷史項目（英语：Bay Area Holocaust Oral History Project）社區安全信託（英语：Community Security Trust）中東媒體研究所（英语：Middle East Media Research Institute）西蒙·維森塔爾中心南方贫困法律中心斯蒂芬羅斯研究所（英语：Stephen Roth Institute）以色列猶太大屠殺紀念館
按地區	阿拉伯世界反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in the Arab world）沙特阿拉伯反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia）阿根廷反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Argentina）加拿大反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Canada）中国反犹太主义智利反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Chile）哥斯達黎加反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Costa Rica）歐洲反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Europe）當代奧地利反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Austria）當代比利時反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Belgium）法國反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in France） 21世紀法國反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in 21st-century France） 21世紀德國反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in 21st-century Germany）希臘反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Greece）當代匈牙利反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary） 21世紀意大利反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy）當代挪威反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Norway）俄羅斯反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Russia）俄罗斯帝国反犹太主义苏联反犹太主义西班牙反犹主义瑞典反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Sweden）烏克蘭反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Ukraine）英國反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in the United Kingdom）英國保守黨反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in the UK Conservative Party）英國工黨反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in the UK Labour Party）日本反猶太主義（英语：Antisemitism in Japan）巴勒斯坦反猶太主義（英语：Racism in the State of Palestine#Antisemitism）