中東戰場 (第一次世界大戰)
外觀
第一次世界大戰中東戰場 | |||||||||
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第一次世界大戰的一部分 | |||||||||
![]() 1915年4月,加里波利之戰 | |||||||||
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參戰方 | |||||||||
協約國: (直到 1917年) ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() 庫爾德叛軍[1][2] |
同盟國:![]() ![]() ![]() 支援: ![]() ![]() ![]() 大多數的庫爾德人部落 | ||||||||
指揮官與領導者 | |||||||||
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兵力 | |||||||||
![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() 50,000人以上 (1918年)[8] ![]() ![]() 總共: 3,620,000人以上 |
![]() 3,059,205人 (戰爭總動員士兵人數)[10] 800,000人 (高峰)[10][11] 323,000人(在穆茲羅斯停戰協定時)[12] ![]() 20,000人 (1918年)[10] ![]() ![]() | ||||||||
傷亡與損失 | |||||||||
1,250,000人以上 |
1,560,000人[15] 771,844人死亡或失蹤 695,375人受傷 145,104人被俘 | ||||||||
至少有2,275,000名平民死於奧斯曼帝國在1914–1918年的種族屠殺 (1,500,000名亞美尼亞人,[16] 500,000名希臘人,[17] 275,000名亞述人[18]) 至少有1,200,000名奧斯曼帝國平民死於饑荒或疾病[19][20][21] 2,000,000名波斯人死於飢荒[22] 總共: 至少5,500,000名平民死亡 |
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中東戰場是第一次世界大戰期間自1914年10月29日至1918年10月30日發生的一系列軍事行動的代稱。參戰方包括奧斯曼帝國以及部分同盟國,和協約國的大英帝國、俄羅斯帝國、法蘭西共和國和當地起義軍。主要有五場戰役:西奈與巴勒斯坦戰役、美索不達米亞戰役、高加索戰役、波斯戰役和加里波利戰役。另外還有相對小型的阿拉伯起義和南阿拉伯戰役。除去正規軍之外,雙方在區域內採用了非對稱作戰。協約國方面有參與阿拉伯叛亂的阿拉伯人,和因亞美尼亞種族滅絕參與亞美尼亞抵抗運動的亞美尼亞游擊隊。亞美尼亞志願軍與亞美尼亞游擊隊在隨後的1918年形成了亞美尼亞民主共和國的軍隊。此外,亞述人在亞述人種族大屠殺後也加入了協約國,被稱為亞述志願軍和我們最小的盟友。[23][24]戰區覆蓋了戰爭中所有戰區中最大的領土。這一戰場在一戰中包含了最大的參戰地域。
俄軍的參戰以與奧斯曼帝國達成埃爾津詹休戰(1917年12月5日)和隨後蘇俄政府以布列斯特-立陶夫斯克條約(1918年3月3日)撤軍為止。亞美尼亞人參加了1918年3月14日的特拉布宗和平會議,並最終在1918年6月4日以亞美尼亞民主共和國的身份與奧斯曼帝國簽署了巴統條約。奧斯曼於1918年10月30日接受了協約國的穆德洛斯停戰協定,並分別於1920年8月10日和1923年7月24日簽署了色佛爾條約和洛桑條約。
註腳
[編輯]- ^ Zardykhan, Zharmukhamed. Ottoman Kurds of the First World War Era: Reflections in Russian Sources. Middle Eastern Studies. 2006, 42 (1): 67–85 [2022-03-09]. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4284431. S2CID 145313196. doi:10.1080/00263200500399561. (原始內容存檔於2021-11-08).
The Kurdish 'natural' opposition to the Hamidiye is mentioned by Kamal Madhar Ahmad among the reasons for the adherence of some Kurdish chieftains to Russia. [...] In addition, as General Korsun states, the Russian 'conquest' of Erzincan created an opportunity for Russia to establish contact with the Kurds of Dersim, 'who were rising up against the Turks'.
- ^ Armstrong, Mick. The Kurdish tragedy. redflag.org.au. 28 October 2019 [2020-05-04]. (原始內容存檔於17 March 2020).
During World War One, the Western powers, in particular the British, promised the Kurds an independent state to encourage them to revolt against their Ottoman rulers.
- ^ Austro-Hungarian Army in the Ottoman Empire 1914–1918 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期18 June 2008.
- ^ Jung, Peter. Austro-Hungarian Forces in World War I. Oxford: Osprey. 2003: 47. ISBN 1841765945.
- ^ Fleet, Kate; Faroqhi, Suraiya; Kasaba, Reşat. The Cambridge History of Turkey: Turkey in the Modern World. Cambridge University Press. 2006: 94 [2022-03-09]. ISBN 0521620961. (原始內容存檔於2022-01-02).
- ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Erickson, Edward J. Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: a comparative study. Taylor & Francis. 2007: 154. ISBN 978-0-415-77099-6.
- ^ Murphy, p. 26.
- ^ Mehmet Bahadir Dördüncü, Mecca-Medina: the Yıldız albums of Sultan Abdülhamid II, Tughra Books, 2006, ISBN 1-59784-054-8, p. 29. Number refers only to those laying siege to Medina by the time it surrendered and does not account for Arab insurgents elsewhere.
- ^ Paul Bartrop, Encountering Genocide: Personal Accounts from Victims, Perpetrators, and Witnesses, ABC-CLIO, 2014
- ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Broadberry, S. N.; Harrison, Mark. The Economics Of World War I. Cambridge University Press. 2005: 117 [2022-03-09]. ISBN 0521852129. (原始內容存檔於2022-01-02).
- ^ Gerd Krumeich: Enzyklopädie Erster Weltkrieg, UTB, 2008, ISBN 3825283968, p. 761 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) (德語).
- ^ A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire, M. Sükrü Hanioglu, page 181, 2010
- ^ MK/QİO ilə işğalçı qoşunların say tərkibi, silah və hərbi texnikasına BAXIŞ (FOTOLAR) - I Yazı. [2022-03-09]. (原始內容存檔於2019-08-23).
- ^ Kostiner, Joseph. The Making of Saudi Arabia, 1916–1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State. Oxford University Press. 1993: 28 [2022-03-09]. ISBN 0195360702. (原始內容存檔於2022-01-02).
- ^ Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War By Huseyin (FRW) Kivrikoglu, Edward J. Erickson, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 0313315167, p. 211 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). Listed below are total Ottoman casualties; they include some 50,000 losses in eastern Europe of which 25,000 were in Galicia, 20,000 in Romania, and a few thousand in Macedonia (p. 142).
- ^ Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. ISBN 978-0-313-34642-2.
- ^ Taner Akcam. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Henry Holt and Company. 21 August 2007: 107. ISBN 978-1-4668-3212-1.
- ^ Yacoub, Joseph. La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938), 4 vol., thèse Lyon, 1985, p. 156.
- ^ Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik. Moscow. ISBN 978-5-93165-107-1. pp. 61, 65, 73, 77, 78.
- ^ Six unexpected WW1 battlegrounds. BBC World Service. BBC. 26 November 2014 [12 July 2016]. (原始內容存檔於2017-08-03).
- ^ Schatkowski Schilcher, Linda: The famine of 1915–1918 in Greater Syria, in: Spagnolo, John P. (ed.): Problems of the modern Middle East in historical perspective, Ithaca 1993: Cornell University Press, pp. 229-258.
- ^ Ward, Steven R. Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces. Georgetown University Press. 2014. ISBN 9781626160651., p. 123: "As the Great War came to its close in the fall of 1918, Iran's plight was woeful. The war had created an economic catastrophe, invading armies had ruined farmland and irrigation works, crops and livestock were stolen or destroyed, and peasants had been taken from their fields and forced to serve as laborers in the various armies. Famine killed as many as two million Iranians out of a population of little more than ten million while an influenza pandemic killed additional tens of thousands."
- ^ Wigram, William Ainger. Our Smallest Ally ; Wigram, W[illiam] A[inger] ; A Brief Account of the Assyrian Nation in the Great War. Introd. by General H.H. Austin. Soc. for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1920 [2022-03-09]. (原始內容存檔於2022-03-14) (英語).
- ^ Naayem, Shall This Nation Die?, p. 281
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