美國運輸安全管理局
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運輸安全管理局 | |
Transportation Security Administration | |
![]() 徽章 | |
![]() 標誌 | |
![]() 旗幟 | |
機構概要 | |
成立時間 | 2001年11月19日 |
前身機構 | 美國聯邦航空管理局 – 民航安全辦公室 |
機構類型 | 美國聯邦政府機構[*]、人群[*] |
機構駐地 | 弗吉尼亞州費爾法克斯縣Springfield |
僱員數目 | 超過57,600人(2016年) |
年度預算額 | 75.5億美元(2015年) |
機構首長 | 運輸安全管理局局長[*]: |
上級機構 | 美國國土安全部 |
授權法源 | 航空及運輸安全法案[*]、2002年國土安全法案[*] |
網站 | www |
美國運輸安全管理局(英語:Transportation Security Administration)是美國國土安全部下屬的一個機構,負責美國境內公共交通的安全事宜,機構於九一一襲擊事件後隨國土安全部一同建立。
歷史與法案
[編輯]美國運輸安全管理局的設立是航空和運輸安全法案的一部分。該法案由美國眾議院的唐·揚[1]和參議院Ernest Hollings發起,[2][3]於第107屆美國國會通過,並由總統喬治·沃克·布什於2001年11月19日簽署成為法律。運輸安全管理局原本歸屬美國運輸部,但2003年3月9日轉屬美國國土安全部。
管理和組織架構
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/US-TransportationSecurityAdmin-DOTSeal.svg/180px-US-TransportationSecurityAdmin-DOTSeal.svg.png)
新總部
[編輯]2017年8月,聯邦總務署宣佈將在Springfield, Virginia建立新總部。新建總部面積達625,000平方英尺,靠近法蘭克尼亞-春田站,預計15年的租賃費用為3.16億美元。設施預計將於2020年中期開放。[4]
徽章
[編輯]2018年9月11日,TSA採用了代表其核心價值觀和創始原則的新旗幟。 該設計以白色、圖形化的白頭海鵰為特色,位於紅色和白色環的中央,與藍色區域相映成趣,其動態羽毛的翅膀伸展成一個姿勢,表示保護、警惕和承諾。 鷹的翅膀突破了紅色和白色的遏制環,表明行動自由。從鷹的頂部發出九顆星和11條光線代表9月11日。還有代表交通方式的陸地(道路)和海洋的圖案。 [5]
領導層
[編輯]在TSA按航空和運輸安全法在美國運輸部中成立時,該機構的管理職位被稱為負責交通安全的副部長(Under Secretary of Transportation for Security)。TSA轉署美國國土安全部後,該職位重新歸類為運輸安全管理局局長(Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration)。該職位也被稱為國土安全部分管交通運輸安全管理局的助理部長(Assistant Secretary of Homeland Security for the Transportation Security Administration)。
在TSA 15年的歷史中,共有七名局長和六名代理局長。
# | 照片 | 姓名 | 任期 | 備註 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | ![]() |
John Magaw | 2002 | 交通安全部副部長 |
2 | ![]() |
James Loy | 2002–2003 | 交通安全部副部長,直至過渡到國土安全部 |
3 | ![]() |
David M. Stone | 2003–2005 | 代理,直到2004年7月由參議院確認[6] |
— | Kenneth Kasprisin | 2005 | 代理[7][8] | |
4 | ![]() |
Kip Hawley | 2005–2009 | |
— | ![]() |
Gale Rossides | 2009–2010 | 代理 |
5 | ![]() |
John S. Pistole | 2010–2014 | |
— | ![]() |
Melvin J. Carraway | 2015 | 代理,因國土安全局暗訪團隊測試顯示TSA檢查站失效而被重新分配到國土安全部國家和地區執法辦公室。[9][10] |
— | ![]() |
Mark Hatfield Jr. | 2015 | 代理[11] |
— | ![]() |
Francis X. Taylor | 2015 | 代理,兼任國土安全局情報分析局副局長 |
6 | ![]() |
Peter V. Neffenger | 2015–2017 | |
— | ![]() |
Huban A. Gowadia | 2017 | 代理 |
7 | ![]() |
David Pekoske | 2017-至今 |
組織結構
[編輯]- 局長(Administrator)
- 副局長(Deputy Administrator)
- 績效與企業風險辦公室(Office of Performance and Enterprise Risk)
- 首席律師辦公室(Office of Chief Counsel)
- 公民權利和自由、監察員和旅行者參與辦公室(Office of Civil Rights and Liberties, Ombudsman and Traveler Engagement)
- 財務和行政辦公室Office of Finance and Administration)
- 辦公室主管(Chief of Staff)
- 法律事務辦公室(Office of Legislative Affairs)
- 戰略傳播和公共事務辦公室(Office of Strategic Communications and Public Affairs)
- 運營主管(Chief of Operations)
- 全球戰略辦公室(Office of Global Strategies)
- 情報與分析辦公室(Office of Intelligence and Analysis)
- 執法辦公室(Office of Law Enforcement) / 聯邦航空警察勤務部
- 要求和能力分析辦公室(Office of Requirements and Capabilities Analysis)
- 安全運行辦公室(Office of Security Operations)
- 安全政策和行業參與辦公室(Office of Security Policy and Industry Engagement)
- 任務支持主管(Chief of Mission Support)
- 收購計劃管理辦公室(Office of Acquisition Program Manangement)
- 合同與採購辦公室(Office of Contracting and Procurement)
- 人力資本辦公室(Office of Human Capital)
- 信息技術辦公室(Office of Information Technology)
- 檢查辦公室(Office of Inspection)
- 職業責任辦公室(Office of Professional Responsibility)
- 培訓與發展辦公室(Office of Training and Development)[12]
- 副局長(Deputy Administrator)
執法
[編輯]機場安檢
[編輯]美國運輸安全管理局是為應對九一一襲擊事件而建立。首任管理者John Magaw由布什總統於2001年12月10日提名,並於接下來的一月份由參議院確認。該機構的支持者(包括運輸部長諾曼·峰田)認為,一個聯邦機構能更好地保護航空旅行,優於那些根據合同經營單一航空公司或使用特定終端設施的航空公司集團的私營公司。
在該機構成立之前,空旅安全由私營安保公司負責。[13]
該機構負責制定保護美國運輸安全的政策,尤其是機場安全和預防劫機。
TSA篩查員(安檢員)是一例短期內完成大規模人員配置項目的案例。美國歷史上唯一一次接近它的行動是第二次世界大戰中對武裝部隊新兵的測試。2002年2月至12月期間,共計為170萬名申請者評估55,000個職位。[14]
TSA與州、地方和區域合作夥伴一同負責監督公路、鐵路、公共汽車、公共交通系統、管道和港口的安全。不過,TSA的大部分努力都在航空安全方面。TSA負責在超過450個美國機場對乘客和行李進行安檢。[15]
私營安檢並未隨着TSA的出現而消失,航空公司可以選擇不採用政府的篩查安檢,而僱傭私營公司完成這項工作。此類公司必須按篩查合作夥伴計劃(SPP)獲得TSA批准,並遵循TSA程序。[16]美國擁有私營檢查站的機場有三藩市國際機場、堪薩斯城國際機場、大羅切斯特國際機場、圖珀洛區域機場、基韋斯特國際機場、查爾斯·舒爾茨- 索諾瑪縣機場和傑克遜霍爾機場。[17]
僱員
[編輯]TSA員工包括:[18]
- 運輸安全官:TSA僱傭了大約4.7萬名運輸安全官員(Transportation Security Officer,簡稱TSO),這也通常被稱為篩檢員(screener)或agents。這些人員負責篩查人員和財物,以及控制機場的出入境點。他們也監視着檢查站前方和後方的多個區域。[19][20]運輸安全官不攜帶武器,不被允許使用武力,並且也沒有權利進行逮捕。[21]
- 運輸安全官(TSO)為航空旅客、機場和飛機提供安全和保護,這包括:
- 使用各種篩檢設備和技術識別行李、貨物和乘客中的危險物品,並防止這些物品被運上飛機。
- 執行搜索和篩檢,其中可能包括與乘客的物理互動(例如拍打搜檢、搜索財物等),進行行李搜索以及舉起/搬運手提袋、行李箱垃圾箱以及最重達70磅財務。
- 控制末端入口和出口。
- 與公眾互動,指導和回應詢問。
- Maintaining focus and awareness while working in a stressful environment which includes noise from alarms, machinery and people, crowd distractions, time pressure, and disruptive and angry passengers, in order to preserve the professional ability to identify and locate potentially life threatening or mass destruction devices, and to make effective decisions in both crisis and routine situations.
- Engaging in continuous development of critical thinking skills, necessary to mitigate actual and potential security threats, by identifying, evaluating, and applying appropriate situational options and approaches. This may include application of risk-based security screening protocols that vary based on program requirements.
- Retaining and implementing knowledge of all applicable Standard Operating Procedures, demonstrating responsible and dependable behavior, and is open to change and adapts to new information or unexpected obstacles.[22]
- 截至2014年9月[update],運輸安全官起薪為每年25,773到38,660美元[23],不包括地區補貼(48個州)或夏威夷和阿拉斯加的生活費津貼。少數機場也有高達35%的保留獎金。[24]這超過了私營安檢員的薪金。[25]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/US_Navy_050815-F-4201N-092_A_member_of_the_Transportation_Security_Administration_%28TSA%29_conducts_a_security_search_for_unidentified_objects_during_an_alert_response_mission_during_Alaska_Shield-Northern_Edge.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg)
- 行為檢測官:2003年,TSA實施了觀察技術篩檢乘客(SPOT),並於2007年擴展到美國各地。在這個計劃中,身為運輸安全官的行為檢測官(BDO)在乘客經過安檢點時觀察乘客,尋找可能存在較高風險的行為,使這些旅客接受額外的檢查。[26]
- 該TSA方案在2013年受到了聯邦政府政府問責局的審查,因為沒有證據表明它的有效性,所以建議是其削減資金。[30]JASON科學諮詢小組也表示,「沒有科學證據支持未來行為的發現或推斷,包括意圖。」[31]
- 聯邦航空警察:美國聯邦空中法警 is the law enforcement arm of the TSA. FAMs are federal law enforcement officers who work 臥底 to protect the air travel system from hostile acts. As a part of the Federal Air Marshal Service, FAMs do carry weapons.[32]
- The FAM role, then called "sky marshalls", originated in 1961 with U.S. Customs Service (now 美國海關及邊境保衛局) following the first US hijacking.[33]It became part of the TSA following the creation of the TSA following the September 11 attacks,[32]was transferred to the 美國移民及海關執法局 in 2003, and back to the TSA in fiscal 2006.[來源請求]
- Federal Flight Deck Officer (FFDOs) are the airline pilots working for the U.S. airlines, who are deputized as federal law enforcement officers (FLEOs) to carry out the law enforcement duties within their specific jurisdictions (flight deck) and only from the time their aircraft doors are closed and until they are opened. FFDOs have the power to arrest, apply force (only within their jurisdiction) and are required to carry a federally issued firearm. Only active airline pilots are eligible for the FFDO program, which is available for a limited enrollment on a volunteer basis. FFDO's are trained by the 美國聯邦空中法警 and deputized by the 美國國土安全部. Their primary goal is to work with (or without) the FAM team to defend the flight deck from hijacking or any other terrorist threats to their aircraft.
- Transportation Security Inspectors (TSIs): They inspect, and investigate passenger and cargo transportation systems to see how secure they are. TSA employs roughly 1,000 aviation inspectors, 450 cargo inspectors,[34]and 100 surface inspectors.[18]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Tsa_viper_csg1.jpg/170px-Tsa_viper_csg1.jpg)
- 國家爆炸物檢測犬團隊項目:These trainers prepare dogs and handlers to serve as mobile teams that can quickly find dangerous materials. 截至June 2008年[update], the TSA had trained about 430 canine teams, with 370 deployed to airports and 56 deployed to mass transit systems.[35]
- 可視化聯合預防和響應(VIPR)團隊:VIPR teams started in 2005 and involved Federal Air Marshals and other TSA crew working outside of the airport environment, at train stations, ports, truck weigh stations, special events, and other places. There has been some controversy and congressional criticism for problems such as the July 3, 2007 holiday screenings. In 2011, 美鐵 police chief John O'Connor moved to temporarily ban VIPR teams from Amtrak property. As of 2011, VIPR team operations were being conducted at a rate of 8,000 per year.[36]
制服
[編輯]2008年,TSA官員開始穿着藍灰色65/35聚酯/棉混紡襯衫、黑色褲子、黑色腰帶的新制服,其中也有可選的短袖襯衫和黑色背心(出於季節性原因)。[37]巴爾的摩/華盛頓瑟古德·馬歇爾國際機場是引入新制服的首個機場。從2008年9月11日開始,所有TSA職員開始穿着新制服。每個肩章上的一個條帶表示一名TSA官員(TSO),兩個條帶表示Lead TSO,三個條帶表示Supervisory TSO。
因TSA官員佩戴的徽章與警察攜帶的徽章相似,導致了後者遭到投訴。[38]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/TSO_Shoulder_Boards.jpg/129px-TSO_Shoulder_Boards.jpg)
2013年洛杉磯機場槍擊案
[編輯]2013年11月1日(星期五),39歲的TSA官員Gerardo I. Hernandez在洛杉磯國際機場被一名槍手槍殺。執法人員將嫌疑人確定為23歲的保羅·安東尼·希恩西亞(Paul Anthony Ciancia),他在被拘捕前被執法人員射傷。[39]希恩西亞身着迷彩服,手持一個手寫便箋,說他「想殺死TSA和豬」。埃爾南德斯(Hernandez)是第一位在工作中遇害的TSA官員。
2015年新奧爾良機場遭襲案
[編輯]2015年3月21日,63歲的理查德·懷特(Richard White)攜帶燃燒瓶、汽油打火機和一把彎刀進入新奧爾良路易斯阿姆斯特朗國際機場。他很快開始襲擊旅客和運輸安全管理人員,向他們噴灑一罐黃蜂殺手,然後拔出彎道跑過金屬探測器。傑佛遜堂區副警長在他用彎刀追殺TSA官員時射殺了懷特。[40]
資金
[編輯]2012財年,TSA的預算約為76億美元。
預算[41] | 百萬美元[來源請求] | Share[需要解釋] |
---|---|---|
航空安全 | 5,254 | 70% |
運輸安全支持與情報 | 1,032 | 14% |
聯邦航空法警 | 966 | 13% |
運輸威脅評估與認證 | 165 | 2% |
地面運輸安全 | 135 | 2% |
總計 | 7,552 | 100% |
TSA部分預算出自每位乘客2.50美元的稅款。奧巴馬政府提議在2019年前將這一費用增加兩倍,其中大部分增加將減少國債。[42]
旅客在2012年和2013年在機場檢查站落下了大約50萬美元。[43]TSA保留這筆資金用於安全運營。[44]
篩查流程和法規
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Transportation_Security_Administration_officer_screening_a_bag.jpg/220px-Transportation_Security_Administration_officer_screening_a_bag.jpg)
乘客與隨身物品檢查
[編輯]身份要求
[編輯]TSA要求乘客在登機前於安檢處出示有效身份證件。有效身份證件包括美國或外國政府頒發的護照,國家簽發的有照片身份證,或軍人身份證。沒有身份證件的乘客如果可以通過其他方式驗證其身份,也可以登機。[45]
乘客姓名將與禁飛名單比較,這是一份約21,000名被禁止登機的恐怖分子嫌疑人名單。[46]乘客名稱還與更長的「selectees」名單進行比較,與名單上姓名相符的乘客在被允許登機前要接受更加徹底的檢查。[47]這些名單的有效性在名單存在錯誤[48]、名單可能違憲、未能阻止Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab試圖在登機時引爆內衣里的塑料炸藥[49]等基礎上受到了廣泛批評。 機場的安全檢查站會對乘客進行篩查,以確保其沒有攜帶違禁物品。違禁品包括各種尖銳物、許多體育用品(如棒球棒、曲棍球棒)、槍支或其他武器、各種工具、易燃液體(傳統打火機除外)、許多形式的化學品和油漆等[50]。此外,乘客不得攜帶超過100毫升的幾乎任何液體或凝膠,物品必須被放置在一個透明的夾鏈袋中。[51]這些液體限制是對2006年跨大西洋航機恐怖襲擊陰謀的應對。
根據TSA的數據,發現攜帶有槍支到飛機上的乘客人數近年來有所增加,從2009年的976人增加到2013年的1,813人。[52]2010年,一位不願透露姓名的消息人士告訴美國廣播公司新聞稱,臥底特工在一些主要機場有將近70%的可能順利地攜帶武器。[53]美國國內航班則可以合法的託運槍支。[54]
在某些情況下,政府領導人、美國軍事和執法官員被允許繞過安檢。[55][56]
在2011年10月開始試運營的一項計劃中,TSA的預檢計劃允許美國航空、達美航空、聯合航空、阿拉斯加航空、夏威夷航空、維珍美國航空、西南航空、加拿大航空、捷藍航空和太陽城航空的飛行常客獎勵計劃選定會員、全球入境、NEXUS和SENTRI的成員,以及美軍現役人員[來源請求]參加,以接受國內和選定國際行程的加急篩查。[57]截至2015年8月年[update],該計劃面向156個機場提供。[58]在完成背景檢查、進行指紋識別[59]並支付85美元費用後,旅客將得到一個已知旅行者號碼。該計劃引發了對公平性和更長時間等待的反對意見。[60]墨西哥國際航空、阿提哈德航空、Cape Air和Seaborne Airlines加入該計劃後,航空公司會員總數達16個。[61]在2015年12月15日,忠實航空也加入該計劃。[62]2016年6月21日,其宣佈邊疆航空和精神航空將於2016年秋季起加入該計劃。[63]2016年8月31日,漢莎航空加入計劃[64],邊疆航空也於同年9月29日加入。[65]2017年1月26日,又有11家航空公司加入[66],同年5月25日再增加7家[67],使成員總數達到了37家公司。
2013年10月,TSA宣佈其已開始在乘客抵達機場前於各種政府和私人數據庫中搜索有關乘客的信息。TSA未透露涉及哪些數據庫,不過TSA有權訪問過去的旅行行程、財產記錄、身體特徵、執法和情報信息等。[68]
2013年12月,TSA PreCheck正式開始運營。[69]
禁止大型打印機墨盒
[編輯]在2010年10月的貨機炸彈陰謀中,貨機上的激光打印機貨物中發現了裝滿炸藥的墨粉盒,此後美國禁止乘客在航班上攜帶特定打印機墨盒。[70]TSA表示將對所有客運航班禁止重量超過16盎司(453克)的碳粉和墨盒。[71][72]禁令適用於隨身行李和託運行李,並不影響碳粉盒較輕的普通旅客。[72]
2010年11月加強篩查程序
[編輯]從2010年11月開始,TSA增加了新的增強篩查程序。乘客登機前必須選擇以增強搜身[55]或人體掃描安檢儀(backscatter X-ray或毫米波檢測)的方式允許安檢員更徹底地檢查如腰帶、腹股溝和大腿內側等身體區域。TSA強調「增強」搜身的侵入性來鼓勵旅客選擇掃描儀。據說這些改變是為回應Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab爆炸陰謀存在的問題。[73]
搜身
[編輯]新的拍打式搜身(Pat-downs)程序最初並未公開[74],「通常涉及到觸碰臀部和生殖器」[75][76][77]以及乳房。[78]這些程序存在爭議性,在2010年11月的民意調查中,50%受訪者認為新的拍打式程序過於極端,另有48%的人認為其合理。[79]一些公開的事件引起了公眾對拍打式手法侵入性的抗議[80][81][82][83]拍打式搜身由與乘客在篩查時出示的同一性別的工作人員執行。[84]
美國公民自由聯盟等組織的對新篩查方法的合憲性表示關切。[85]截至2011年4月,有至少六起指違反美國憲法第四修正案的訴訟。[86][87]喬治華盛頓大學法學院教授Jeffrey Rosen支持這一觀點,稱「有一個強有力的論點認為,TSA的措施違反了憲法第四修正案,該修正案禁止無理搜查和緝獲。」[88]還有人擔心這種拍打式搜查對性侵犯倖存者的影響。[89]2014年1月,丹佛警方針對丹佛國際機場一名安檢人員發起了一項性侵犯調查,乘客指控遭受到了等同性侵犯的搜查。[90]
全身掃描儀
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mmw_large.jpg/160px-Mmw_large.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Backscatter_large.jpg/160px-Backscatter_large.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Tech_backscatter.jpg/160px-Tech_backscatter.jpg)
2010年11月,TSA開始將後向散射X射線掃描儀和毫米波掃描儀設備部署到機場。TSA將這兩項技術稱為高級成像技術(簡稱AIT),批評家則有時稱其為「裸體掃描儀」。[92]
在創建正面與背面圖像時,乘客會被指導將手放在頭上幾秒鐘。[93]如果操作員發現掃描儀發生異常或出現其他問題,乘客還必須接受拍打搜身檢查。
由於私隱和健康問題,全身掃描儀也已被證明存在爭議。
美國公民自由聯盟將掃描儀稱為「虛擬裸檢(virtual strip search)」[94]。[95]女性乘客抱怨稱,她們經常被單獨挑出來進行掃描,CBS在哥斯達黎加的分公司對TSA記錄進行檢查時發現「一些女性相信她們被選中進行額外篩檢不存在任何隨機性。」[96]
TSA在其網站上表示,他們已憑藉嚴格的圖像匿名技術和措施來確保乘客的私隱[97],並指出技術上「不能存儲、打印、傳輸或保存圖像,並且在遠程安全人員清除圖像後,圖像會自動從系統中刪除」。[98]但是,這一說法在發生多起圖像泄露事件後被證明是並不真實。這些機器實際上有能力「保存」圖像,並且TSA在展示時聲稱此功能已被TSA「關閉」,而TSA Air Marshalls和培訓機構「開啟」了保存功能。[99][100][101]
早在2010年,TSA就開始測試能生成較不敏感的「火柴人」圖案的掃描儀。[102]2011年2月,TSA開始在阿姆斯特丹史基浦機場使用的毫米波機器上測試新軟件,它可自動檢測乘客的潛在威脅,而不需人員檢查實際圖像。所有乘客都使用一個通用圖形,並會將小型的黃色框放置在需要額外屏蔽的身體區域。[103]TSA於2013年宣佈,Rapiscan's反向散射掃描儀將不再使用,因為機器製造商無法製作「私隱軟件」來抽象化工作人員查看的裸體圖像,以及將其轉化為數字。TSA將繼續使用其他全身掃描儀。[104]
有關掃描技術對健康的健康也已被提出。
With regards to exposure to 輻射 emitted by backscatter X-rays, and there are fears that people will be exposed to a "dangerous level of radiation if they get backscattered too often" A petition by both scientists and pilots argue that the screening machines are safe.[105]Ionizing radiation is considered a non-threshold 致癌物質, but it is difficult to quantify the risk of low radiation exposures.[106]Active millimeter wave scanners emit radiation which is non-ionizing, does not have enough energy to directly damage DNA, and is not known to be 基因毒性.[107][108][109]
反向篩查
[編輯]2016年4月,TSA局長Peter V. Neffenger告訴參議院委員會,小型機場可以選擇使用「反向篩查」——出發時登機的乘客不經過篩查,而在抵達目的地後再進行篩查。該程序可以節省航班數量有限的機場的成本。[110]
反應
[編輯]2010年11月啟動對所有航空公司乘客和機組人員的加強篩查程序後,US Airline Pilots Association issued a press release stating that pilots should not submit to full body scanners because of unknown radiation risks and calling for strict guidelines for pat-downs of pilots, including evaluation of their fitness for duty after the pat-down, given the stressful nature of pat-downs.[83][111]Two airline pilots filed suit against the procedures.[112]
2011年3月,兩名新罕布什爾州州代表 introduced proposed legislation that would criminalize as 性侵犯 invasive TSA pat-downs made without 相當理由.[113][114][115]In May 2011, the Texas House of Representatives passed a bill that would make it illegal for Transportation Security Administration officials to touch a person's genitals when carrying out a patdown. The bill failed in the Senate after the Department of Justice threatened to make Texas a 禁飛區 if the legislation passed.[116][117]In Congress, 美國眾議院 by 榮·保羅 (R-Texas) introduced the American Traveler Dignity Act (H.R.6416).[118]
2010年7月2日,Electronic Privacy Information Center(EPIC)向美國聯邦法院提起訴訟,要求TSA停止使用全身掃描儀,理由是美國憲法第四修正案,and arguing that the TSA had failed to allow a public notice and rule making period. In July 2011, the D.C. Circuit court of appeals ruled that the TSA did violate the Administrative Procedure Act by failing to allowing a public notice and comment rule making period. The Court ordered the agency to "promptly" undertake a public notice and comment rule making. In July 2012, EPIC returned to court and asked the court to force enforcement; in August, the court granted the request to compel the TSA to explain its actions by the end of the month.[119]The agency responded on August 30, saying that there was "「no basis whatsoever for (The DC Circuit Court's) assertion that TSA has delayed implementing this court’s mandate,」 and said it was awaiting approval from the Department of Homeland Security before the hearings take place. The TSA also said that it was having "staffing issues" regarding the issue, but expects to begin hearings in February 2013.[120]The comment period began on March 25, 2013[121][122]and closed on June 25, 2013, with over 90% of the comments against the scanners.[122]As of October, 2015, no report has been issued.
Two separate Internet campaigns promoted a 「National Opt-Out Day,」 the day before 感恩節, urging travelers to 「opt out」 of the scanner and insist on a pat-down.[123]The enhanced pat-down procedures were also the genesis of the "Don't touch my junk meme".[124]
2017年3月電子設備限令
[編輯]2017年3月21日,TSA宣佈在10個機場禁止將大於智能手機的電子設備運到飛往美國的飛機上。該限令稱據情報指出,恐怖組織正繼續以商業航班為目標,積極尋求新方法發動襲擊,各種消費品爆炸裝置包括在內。[125][126][127]
託運行李
[編輯]行李鎖
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Lol_key_escrow.jpg/220px-Lol_key_escrow.jpg)
為能檢查乘客行李以進行安全檢查,TSA將會剪斷或以其他方式解除其無法開啟的鎖具。TSA授權兩家公司(Travel Sentry和Safe Skies Locks)製造專用的掛鎖、可鎖帶和內置鎖具的行李箱,使TSA可以通過鎖具製造商提供的工具與信息開鎖和重新上鎖。[128]TSA工作人員有時會誤將這些鎖關閉而不是開鎖,2011年,TSA收到了3500多起關於鎖被變動的投訴。[129]旅行記者兼《國家地理旅行者》編者Christopher Elliott稱這些鎖為對保護裏面的物品「沒什麼用(useless)」[130],而SmarterTravel也在2010年初寫道,評審員對其有效性表示懷疑,並注意到它們容易被打開。[131]
2014年11月,華盛頓郵報在一篇有關TSA行李處理的文章中,無意間披露了全部7個TSA主鑰匙的照片[132]。照片後在原始文章中被刪除,但仍出現在一些副本中。[133]2015年8月22日,Twitter用戶Luke Rudkowski(@Lukewearechange)發現了這張照片並將其發佈在Twitter上[134],內容迅速在社交媒體上傳播並引發新聞網站的關注。[135]憑藉這張照片,安全研究人員和公眾可以用3D打印技術複製主鑰匙的可用副本。[136][137]該事件促使人們討論了主鑰匙機制的安全性。[135]
行李盜竊
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tsa_notice_of_baggage_inspection.jpg/150px-Tsa_notice_of_baggage_inspection.jpg)
TSA被批評[138]其成立後增加了行李被盜率。已知的盜竊既包括貴重物品,又包括危險物品,諸如筆記本電腦、珠寶、[139]槍支、[140]刀具等。[141]這種盜竊的發生引發了人們的擔憂,即竊賊可能通過相同方式將炸彈送入飛機。[142]
據報道,2004年有超過1萬7000起行李被盜索賠。[139]截至2004年,60名安檢人員因涉行李被盜而被捕,[139],2008年增長至200名。[143]2009年共向TSA報告了11,700起盜竊和損害索賠,相比2004年的26,500起有所下降,這被歸因於機場安裝了攝像機和傳送帶。[144]2010至2014年的五年期間,共發生了25,016起盜竊案件。[145]
截至2011年[update],TSA總共僱傭約6萬名篩查員(包括行李和旅客篩查)[146],並自該機構於2001年11月成立以來,已有大約500名TSA員工因從旅客行李中偷竊而被開除或停職。2010至2014年報告盜竊案最多的機場為約翰·甘迺迪國際機場,隨後為洛杉磯國際機場和奧蘭多國際機場。[145]
2008年,WTAE在匹茲堡的一份調查報告披露,儘管有超過400份的行李被竊報告,大約有半數是由TSA補償旅客,而不涉及逮捕竊賊。[147]因一項政策,TSA不會與當地警察部門共享行李失竊報告。[147]
2012年9月,美國廣播公司(ABC)新聞採訪了前TSA員工Pythias Brown,他承認在該機構工作期間曾竊取價值超過80萬美元的物品。Brown表示「竊取非常方便」,該機構內士氣低落是導致員工從乘客物品中偷竊的原因。[148]
TSA也因為沒有對盜竊行為做出正確回應及向乘客補償物品被盜而遭到了批評。例如在2011年至2012年間,哈茨菲爾德-傑克遜亞特蘭大國際機場的乘客報告TSA遺失或損壞了達30萬美元的財產,而該機構只賠償了35,000美元。[149]傑克遜維爾國際機場也出現了類似的統計——在15個月內乘客共報告了價值22,000美元的貨物遺失或損壞。而TSA只賠償了800美元。[150]
篩查效果
[編輯]TSA調查辦公室[151]和美國國土安全部督察辦公室經常進行秘密行動以測試機場篩查流程的有效性。
A report by the Department of Homeland Security Office of Inspector General found that TSA officials had collaborated with Covenant Aviation Security (CAS) at 三藩市國際機場 to alert screeners to undercover tests.[152]From August 2003 until May 2004, precise descriptions of the undercover personnel were provided to the screeners. The handing out of descriptions was then stopped, but until January 2005 screeners were still alerted whenever undercover operations were being undertaken.[153]When no wrongdoing on the part of CAS was found, the contract was extended for four years. Some CAS and TSA workers received disciplinary action, but none were fired.[154][155]
A report on undercover operations conducted in October 2006 at 紐華克自由國際機場 was leaked to the press. The screeners had failed 20 of 22 undercover security tests, missing numerous guns and bombs. The 美國政府問責署 had previously pointed to repeated covert test failures by TSA personnel.[156][157]Revealing the results of covert tests is against TSA policy, and the agency responded by initiating an internal probe to discover the source of the leak.[158]
In July 2007, the Times Union of 奧爾巴尼 reported that TSA screeners at Albany International Airport failed multiple covert security tests conducted by the TSA. Among them was a failure to detect a fake bomb.[159]
In December 2010, ABC News Houston reported in an article about a man who accidentally took a forgotten gun through airport security, that "the failure rate approaches 70 percent at some major airports".[53]
In June 2011 TSA fired 36 screeners at the Honolulu airport for regularly allowing bags through without being inspected.[160]
In May 2012, a report from the Department of Homeland Security Office of Inspector General stated that the TSA "does not have a complete understanding" of breaches at the nation's airports, with some hubs doing very little to fix or report security breaches. These findings will be presented to Congress.[161]
A 2015 investigation by the Homeland Security Inspector General revealed that undercover investigators were able to smuggle banned items through checkpoints in 95% of their attempts.[162]
Rep. 達雷爾·伊薩, chairman of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee, and Rep. 約翰·米卡, chairman of the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, have had several joint hearings concerning the cost and benefits of the various safety programs including full body scanners, the Transportation Worker Identification Credential (TWIC), and the behavior detection program, among others.[163]
Some measures employed by the TSA have been accused of being ineffective and fostering a false sense of safety.[164][165]This led security expert 布魯斯·施奈爾 to coin the term security theater to describe those measures.[166]
2002年篩查增強的意外後果
[編輯]一組康奈爾大學研究人員的兩項研究發現,嚴格的機場安檢帶來了增加道路死亡人數的意外後果,因為潛在的航空旅行者決定開車,並且面臨着死於車禍的更大風險。[167][168]2005年,研究人員考察了2001年9月11日襲擊事件發生後的情況,發現乘客出行方式的改變導致每月增加242例駕駛死亡。[167]他們估計,總共有大約1200名駕駛者的死亡可以歸因於襲擊的短期影響。該研究將旅行者行為的變化歸結為兩個因素:對恐怖襲擊的恐懼和希望避免嚴格安全措施帶來的不便;沒有試圖分別估計這兩個因素的影響。
2007年,研究人員研究了美國運輸安全局在2002年底制定的安全做法的變化的具體影響。他們得出結論,這一變化使航空旅行者的數量減少了6%,並估計因此在2002年第四季度,又有129人死於車禍。[168]《紐約時報》撰稿人納特·西爾弗對這一死亡比率進行了推斷,認為這相當於 "每年有四架滿載的波音737飛機墜毀。"[169]2007年的研究報告還指出,嚴格的機場安檢對航空業造成了傷害;2002年第四季度乘客人數下降6%,估計使該行業損失了11億美元的業務。[170]
數據安全事件
[編輯]僱員記錄丟失或被竊
[編輯]TSA總部於2007年丟失或失竊了一塊含有大約10萬名員工的社會安全號碼、銀行資料和薪資信息的未加密電腦硬盤。Kip Hawley警示TSA員工此次丟失事件並為此道歉。該機構要求聯邦調查局進行調查。此後未出現這些數據被濫用的報道。[171][172]
非安全網站
[編輯]2007年,安全研究員Christopher Soghoian的博客稱TSA網站在以不安全的方式收集乘客私人信息,使乘客易受到身份盜竊損害。[173]此網站允許旅客對其被列入No Fly List發起異議。新聞發佈數天天,TSA修復了該網站問題。[174]美國眾議院監督與政府改革委員會調查此事[175]並表示,該網站已運行了四個多月,已有超過247人提交個人信息。[176]該報告還稱,簽發該網站創辦合同的TSA主管與得到該合同的公司所有者是高中好友,並且是該公司的前僱員。[177]其中指出:
Desyne 和旅行者賠償網站的技術負責人都沒有因為他們在部署不安全的網站方面的作用而受到 TSA 的制裁。TSA 繼續向 Desyne 支付費用,以託管和維護兩個主要的網絡信息系統。TSA 沒有採取任何措施來懲戒技術負責人,他仍然在 TSA 擔任高級項目管理職務。[178]
2009年12月,TSA內的某人在FedBizOpps網站上的一個不起眼位置發佈了一本名為「篩查管理SOP」的敏感手冊。該手冊很快被刪除,但該泄露引發了對安全措施是否受到損害的質疑。[179]五名TSA僱員因該手冊的發佈受到行政休假,以及雖然敏感部分受到了刪減,精通計算機用戶能成功恢復其中的信息。[180]
真實身份與空中旅行
[編輯]美國國會於2005年通過了真實身份證件法(REAL ID Act),對國家頒發的駕駛執照和身份證制定了最低安全標準,並禁止如TSA這樣的聯邦機構接受出自不符合這些標準的州官方用途執照和身份證。[181]
強制施行日期
[編輯]自2018年1月22日開始,出自不符合REAL ID法案且未被美國國土安全部授予延期的州頒發的駕駛執照或州身份證件不得用於美國境內飛行。
自2020年10月1日開始,每位旅客都須持符合REAL ID標準的執照、州身份證件或其他可接受身份證件才能在美國境內飛行。
當前接受的身份證件
[編輯]- 駕駛執照、增強型駕駛執照,或其他由機動車輛部門(或同等機構)簽發的符合真實身份法案(REAL ID)要求的有照片身份證
- 美國護照
- 美國護照卡
- DHS可信賴旅行卡(全球入境、芳鄰卡、SENTRI、FAST)
- 美軍身份卡(現役或退役軍人及其家屬,以及美國國防部平民)
- 美國永久居民證
- 過境卡
- 國土安全部指定的增強型駕駛執照
- 航空公司或機場簽發的證件(根據TSA批准的安全計劃簽發)
- 聯邦認可的部落簽發的有照片身份證
- HSPD-12 PIV卡
- 外國政府簽發的護照
- 加拿大省級駕駛執照,或印第安和北美事務卡
- 運輸工人身份證明(TWIC)
- 美國商船水手證
- 美國公民及移民服務局就業授權卡(I-766)[182]
其他批評
[編輯]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/ITSA_insignia_pin_ntegrity.jpg/180px-ITSA_insignia_pin_ntegrity.jpg)
對該機構的普遍批評也包括TSA員工在崗位上睡着[183][184][185][186],繞過安全檢查[187],沒有良好運用判斷力和常識等斷言。[188][189][190]
TSA工作人員還曾被指控對乘客進行虐待、性騷擾[191][192][193][194],[195][196][197][198]有意侵犯私隱或偷竊財物等[147][199][200][201][202][203][204][205]。
在調查確認員工未妥善篩查託運行李中的爆炸物後,TSA解僱了28名特工,並暫停了其他15名特工的工作。[206]
還有指責指TSA在與機場安全無關的事件上花費資金[207]、在招聘中浪費金錢[208]以及存在利益衝突。[209]
TSA也被指控在2009年美國總統就職典禮觀看區表現不佳,有數千持票人因過度擁擠而未能進場,而那些在檢查站前抵達的人則完全避開了篩查。[210][211]
2013年,數十名TSA工作人員因在匹茲堡國際機場[212]非法賭博而被解僱或停職,以及8名TSA工作人員因涉嫌在達拉斯/沃思堡國際機場偷竊停車證而被捕。[213]
2013年,GAO報告顯示,2010年至2012年間,TSA員工的不當行為增加了26%,從2,691件增加到3,408件。[214]另一份GAO報告稱,沒有證據表明年度預算為數億美元的觀察技術篩選乘客(SPOT)行為檢測方案是有效的。[215]
國土安全部監察長辦公室在2013年的一份報告指控,TSA正在用刑事調查人員從事低薪僱員的工作,每年浪費數百萬美元。[216]
2013年12月3日,美國眾議院通過了運輸安全採購改革法案以回應對TSA的採購過程浪費、昂貴和無效的批評。[217][218]如果該法案成為法律,TSA就需要制定全面的技術採購計劃,並向國會定期報告成功和失敗情況,以遵守該計劃。國土安全部監察長辦公室的一份報告指出,TSA於2012年5月31日在其倉庫中儲存了17,000件物品,估計花費為1.857億美元。[219]審計員發現,「TSA存儲不可用或過時的設備,保持不合適的安全庫存水平,並且沒有開發系統部署設備的庫存管理流程。」[219]
2014年1月,奧黑爾國際機場前TSA篩查員Jason Edward Harrington稱,負責審查航空公司提供的乘客身體掃描圖像[需要解釋]的同事經常對乘客的體重、吸引力和私隱部位的大小開玩笑。據他所說,安檢人員會通過代碼短語「Hotel Papa」來提醒出現有吸引力的女性乘客,這樣工作人員就有機會在身體掃描儀顯示器上查看乘客的裸體外形,並通過在檢查站對其拖延來對粗魯旅客[需要解釋]進行報復。運輸安全管理局局長John Pistole回應說,所有掃描儀都已更換,並且檢查室被禁用。他並沒有否認哈靈頓所描述的情況。[220]
2016年5月,女演員蘇珊·莎蘭登聲稱,在布什政府的整個時期,她「每次來到這個國家都受到騷擾」。她聘請了兩位律師聯繫TSA來確定她為什麼被針對,不過她認為這是源自她批評了布什政府。她還說,在她的律師第二次與TSA交涉後,騷擾得到了停止。[221]
公眾意見
[編輯]CBS於2010年11月15日公佈的一次共1137人參與的電話調查顯示,81%的受訪者認可TSA使用全身掃描。[222]於2010年11月22日發佈的由Langer Associates進行的一次ABC/華盛頓郵報民意調查中說,64%的美國人贊成全身X射線掃描儀,但有50%的人認為「增強」效果太過分,37%感受強烈。此外,該民意調查顯示,每年飛行少於一次的人反對率最低。[223]Zogby International後來進行的一次民意調查發現,61%的投票者反對TSA的新舉措。[224]2012年由頻繁商務旅行(Frequent Business Traveler)組織進行的一項民意調查發現,56%的常飛旅客對TSA所做的工作「不滿意」。有57%的人認為TSA「做得不好」,34%的人認為「合理」。僅有1%受訪者認為該機構的工作非常出色。[225]
呼籲廢除
[編輯]包括參議員蘭德·保羅[226]、眾議員約翰·米卡[227]、卡托研究所[228]、Downsize DC Foundation,[229]、FreedomWorks[230],以及福布斯[231]、福斯新聞頻道[232]、國家評論[233]、今日美國[234]、Vox[235]、The Washington Examiner[236]和華盛頓郵報等評論專欄作家[237]在內的眾多團體和人士呼籲廢除現有的TSA。
TSA的批評者常評價該機構為「無效的,侵入性的,無能的,以及不可原諒的成本」[238]作為贊成廢除的理由。呼籲廢除者稱,由合格私營公司提供的篩查有效性和成本提升符合聯邦指導方針。[239]
參見
[編輯]- 2013年洛杉磯國際機場槍擊案
- Airline complaints
- Border Force(英國邊境管理局的兩個繼任機構之一,另一個是英國簽證和移民局)
- 加拿大航空運輸安全局
- 國際民用航空組織
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- ^ Archived copy (PDF). [2015-04-20]. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2016年9月7日).
外部連結
[編輯]- 官方網站
- Transportation Security Administration (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)於聯邦公報
- Screening Management Standard Operating Procedures (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
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